inglese - nouns

inglese - nouns

There are four kinds of nouns in English

common nouns     dog table man
proper nouns         Tom France
abstract nouns          charity beauty fear
collective nouns    swarm team crow flock Group

a noun can function as

The subject of a verb  Tom arrived
complement of the verb be become seem : Tom is an actor
The object of a verb : I saw Tom
the object of a preposition I spoke Tom

A noun can also be in the possessive case

Tom's works

Gender

Masculine   men boys  and male animals (pronoun he/ they )
feminine  women girls and female animals ( pronoun she /they)
neuter  : inanimate things animals whose sex we don't know  and somtimes babies whose sex we don't know

Exceptions

ship are considered feminine and sometimes cars and other vehicles when regarded with affection or respect . Countries when referred to by name are also considered feminine


Most noun have the same form for masculine and feminine :

parent painter driver singer cousin child artist cook judge rider

some have different forms

Brother and sister  uncle and aunt nephew and niece

some form feminine from the masculine by adding ness  note that words ending in or or er often drop o or e

actor  actress  conductor conductress manager manageress

note also 

salesman saleswoman spokeman spokewoman

recently  there has been an attempt to de-sex these words by using person instead of men

salesperson

Plurals

The plural of a noun is usually  made by adding s to the singular

dog dogs  day days

exception

Nouns ending in o ore ss sh ch or x form their plural by adding es

tomatoes  kisses boxes

But words of foreign origin is abbreviated words ending in o add s

piano pianos   dynamo  dynamos

Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural by dropping the y in adding ies

baby babies lady ladies

Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural adding s only

donkey donkeys  boy boys

Tweve nouns ending in f or fe drop the f ore fe and add ves.
 These nouns are wife life knife wolf self calf  shelf leaf loaf thief sheaf half

wife wives  wolf wolves

Other words  ending in f ore fe add s in the plural in the ordinary way

handkerchief  handkerchiefs safe safes

A few nouns form their plural  by a vowel change

man     men
woman women
louse lice
foot feet
mouse mice
goose geese 
tooth theeth
ox oxen

the plural of child is children

Name of certain creatures do not change in the plural

the word fish is normally unchanged fishes exist but is uncommon.
Some types of fish do not normally change in the plural salmon trout squid pike mackerel cod turbot plaice  but if used in a plural sense they would teke a plural verb. Others however do change.

We talk of herrings sardines lobster crabs and all other shellfish whales Dolphins  sharks eels.

sheep and deer  don't  change  one sheep two sheep

spormen who shoot duck pheasant partridge snipe ptarmigan teal wood cock grouse  etc. use the same form for singular and plural. But other people  normally add s to the plural form of names of birds in common use

The word game  used by sporsmen to mean an animal/animals  hented is Always in the singular and  takes a singular verb

A few other words don't change

Aircraft craft
quid (slang for £1)
counsel (barristers working in court)

certain words are Always singular

advice
knowledge
baggage
furniture
information
news
luggage
rubbish

Certain words are Always plural  : police clothes

garments consisting in two parts  Pyjamas trousers breeches pants
tools or instruments cosisting of two parts  binoculars glasses spectacles pliers shears scissors  scales
premieses and quarters (used to mean accomodation)

All above words takes a plural verb.

There are also a number of words  ending in ics

mathematics
physics
plitics
hysterics
ethics
athletics

whichi have  a plural form and normally take a plural verb

Athletics are his main interest

But names of sciences can be considered singular in such sentences as

Mathematisc is an exacti science
Ethics is one of the subjects of course

Some measuremets and numerals do no change either 

Words whicih retain their original Greek or latin forms make their plurals according to the rules of
Greek or latin

erratum errata
radius radii
crisis crises
memorandum memoranda
datum data
phenomenon phenomena
terminus termini
basis bases
oasis oases
axis axes 
thesis theses

But there is a tendency particularly with farly common Latin or Greek words to make the plural according to the rule of English

dogma dogmas
gymnasium gymnasiums
formula formulas

Sometimes  there are two plural forms with different meanings

index indexes  list of contents of books
indices  a Mathematical term

appendix appendixes  a medical term
appendices  used both as a medical term and also   for additions to a book

Genius geniuses extraordinarly intelligent persons
genii supernatural beings

compound nouns

normally the last word is made plural

armchair   armchairs
bookcase bookcases

where man woman is prefixed both  parts are made plural

men students women students

compound nouns formed with prepositions or adverbs make only the first word plural

sister-in-law  sisters-in-law  looker-on  lookers-on

when  the compound noun ha an adjective as the last word  the fisto word is usually made plural

court martial courts martial

words ending in ful usually make their plural in the ordinary way

handful handfuls

Initials can be made plural

VIPs (Very Important Persons)
OAPs Old Age Pensioners)

The possesive case form

's is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s

a man's job
a children's voice

A simple apostrophe ' is used with plural nouns ending in s

a girls' school

Classical nams ending in s usulli add only apostrophe

Pythagoras' Theorem
Archimedes' Law

with compounds the last word takes 's

My Brother-in-law's guitar

Use of the possesive case and of + noun used for possession

The possessive case is chiefly used of people contries or animals as show above  but can used also

Of ship and boats  the ship's bell

of planes trains car and other vehicles though here the of constucion is safer

in time expressions

a week's Holiday

in expressions of money + Worth

£ 1's Worth of stamps

with for + noun + sake

for heaven's sake

in a few expression

a stone's throw  journey's end  the water's edge

we can say either a winter's day   but we cannot make spring or autumn possessive except when they are personified  Autumn's return

of+ noun is used for possesion

when the possessor noun is followd by a phrase or clause 

the boy ran about obeyng the directions of a man  with a whistle

with inanimate possesions except those listed above

the walls of the town

However it is often possible to replace noun 1 of noun 2 by noun 2 noun 1 in order

the town walls

the first become a sort of adjective 

inglese - the definite article

inglese - the definite article

The definitive article is the. It is  the same for singular and plural and for all genders :

The boy the boys the girl  the girls

use of the definite article

The definite article is used 

a) before nouns of which there is only one  or which is considered as one :

the earth  the sky the weather 

b) before a noun  which ha become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time

HIs car struck a tree you can still see the mark on the tree.

c) before a noun made definite by addition of a phrase or clause

the girl in blue
The boy that I met

d) before noun  which by reason of locality can represent only particular thing

Ann is in the garden (the garden of this house )

e) befor superlatives  and first second  and only used as adjectives o pronouns

Mount Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe.

1)  the + singular noun can  represent a class of animals or things :

The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.

the can however be used before a member of  a certain Group of people

the small shopkeepers are finding life difficult

the + singolar noun  as used above takes a singular verb the pronoun is he  she  it

the firsr-class traveller pays more so  he expects some comfort

2)  the + adjective  represent a class of persons

the old = old people in general

The verb is plural the pronoun is they

the Young are impatient

3)  the is used before certain proper name of sea river groups of islands chains of mountains  plural names of countries desert

The arctic
the Alps
the sahara

the is also  used before  names consisting of noun + of + noun

The cape of Good Hope
The Gulf of Mexico

the is used before name  consisting of adjective + noun 

The giold Coast
The New Forest

the is not used before west  east erc + noun 

Yucatan is in North America

but

I go to the South (noun)

the is used before musical instrument

play the flute

the is used before the names of meals if these are qualified by clause

The dinners Peter used to give were really memorable

OMISSION

the definite article is not used

 1) before name of places except as sgown above o before names of people

the + plural surname can be used to mean family 

the Smiths =  mr and mrs Smith (and children)

the + singular name can be used to distinguish one person from another of the same name

The mr Smith who works in the Post Office.

Note also that althouth  the is not used before title + noun

Capitain Jones was talking

but it is used before title alone

the captain seemed angry

we also use the before title containing of

The Duke of York

Finally it is possible to adress two unmarried sister as The Misses + surname

The misses  Jones

2)  before abstract nouns except when thy are used in a particular sense

men fear Death

but

the Death of the Prime Minister

3) After noun in the possessive case o possesive adjective :

The boy's uncle

it is my blue book = The blue book is mine

 4) Before name of meals

they have porridge for breakfast

but  the wedding breakfast

5) Before parts of the body and articles clothing  at these normally prefer a possessive adjective

Raise your right hand

he took off his coat

but

the john's face

Note that in some languages  the definite article is used before indefinitre  plural noun but that in English the is never used in this way

women ar expected to like housework (women in general)

if we use the before women it would mean that we were referring  to a particular Group of women


nature where it means the spirit creating an motivating the world of plants and animals is used without the

if you interfere with nature you will suffer for it

6)  omission of the before home Church market school hospital etc.

home
When it is used alone  is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase the is omitted

he went home

but when hom is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like any other noun as regards articles and prepositions

we went to the bride's home

chapel Church market college school hospital court prison  work sea bed

these nouns are used without the when they are visited or used for their primary purpose

to school
 to college
to market
to work

when these places are visited for other reasos the article is used

I went to the Church to see the carvings
He comes to the school sometimes to speak to the headmaster

in contrast these nouns take the

cathedral office cinema theatre

inglese - the indefinite aritcle

inglese - the indefinite article

form

The indefinite article ia  A oppure AN

The form A is used before a word beginning with a consonant ore a vowel sounded like a consonant :

 a man    a table  a university         a useful thing

The forma an is used before wod beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words  beginning with a mute h

an hour    an honourable man   an elephant  an apple 

It is the same for all genders.

The indefinite article A oppure AN is used  :

 a) Before a singular countable noun which is used as en example of a class of things :

a car must be insured = all cars /any car must be insured
a child needs love = all child need/ any child needs love


b)  Before a singular noun which is contable when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing :

I need a Holiday

They live in a bungalow

there is a policeman at the door

c) with a noun complement. This includes  names of professions

He is a doctor 
He become an actor

d)  In certain numerical expressions

a couple
a dozen
half a dozen
an eighth
a quarter
a score
a hundred
a thousand
a million
a lot of
a great many
a great deal of

e) In expressions of price speed ratio ecc.

5 p a kilo
£ 1 a metre
sixty kilometres an hour
10 p a dozen
four time a day

f)  With few and little

a few = a small number or what the speaker considers  a small number
a little = a small amount or what the speaker considers a small amount

few and little can also be used without article but then have an almosto negative meaning and can usually  be replaced by hardly  any

We had little time for amusement implies that we were Always busy.

g) In exclamations before singular countable nouns

what a hot day
what a pretty girl
such a pity

h)   A  can be placed before mr mrs and miss  + surname

a mr Smith  =   a man called Smith

The indefinite article is not used :

a)  Before  plural nouns

The indefinite article has no plural form. Therefore the plural of a dog is dogs.

b) before uncontable nouns

The following nouns are singular and and uncountable in English :

advice   information    news    baggage     luggage   furniture

They  are often preceded by some any a little  a lot of a piece of etc.

I'll give you a piece of advice
you need some more forniture

knowledge is also considered uncontable but when used in particulare sense take the article

a knowledge of languages is Always useful

hair  (all the hair on one's head ) is considered uncountable but if we consider each hair separately we say one hair  two hairs

experience meaning practice in doing somthing is uncountable.
But an experience meaning something which happens to someone  is countable :

He had an exciting esperience (an adventure) last night.

Materials glass, wood, iron, stone, paper, cloth, wine, coffee, tea, etc., are considered uncountable. But many of these nouns can also  denote one particular thing,and then take an article :

window are made of glass

but I've got a paper (newspaper).

c) Before abstract nouns : beauty happiness fear hope Death etc.
except when they are used in particular sense

he was pale with fear
Some children suffer from a fear of the dark

d) Before names of meals except when preceded by an adjective  :

we have breakfast at eight
he gave us a good breakfast

The article is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someone's honour :

I was invited to dinner (at their house in the ordinary way)
I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new Ambassador.

inglese grammatica - i pronomi relativi

inglese grammatica - i pronomi relativi

who that which whose where

I pronomi relativi non variano in relazione al genere o numero. Sostituiscono il nome  e servono ad unire due proposizioni

 The boy is my friend. The boy is sleeping

The boy who is sleeping is my friend

In inglese esistono due tipi di frasi relative : determinative e relative non determinative

Le frasi determinative aggiungono informazioni importanti  per l'identificazione della persona o cosa a cui il pronome si riferisce

The boy (whom) you met Yesterday is my boyfriend

Le frasi non determinative non forniscono informazioni fondamentali

Peter, whom  you met Yesterday il my boyfriend.


                                           persone                                   animali o cose

soggetto                       Who o that                                  which oppure that

complemento               whom oppure that                       whom oppure that

possesso                       whose                                           whose  oppure which

con preposizione          preposizione + who(m)               preposizione + which

                                               FRASI RELATIVE DETERMINATIVE

That può sostituire sia who che which quindi può essere usato  per persone animali o cose

That's the boy who lives next to my cousin

That'ts the boy that lives next to my cousin

whosse  è seguito  dalla cosa posseduta o dalla persona in relazione

That's the woman whose husband works in my office

Who  which o that usati come complemento diretto o indiretto possono essere omessi

That's the boy(who/whom/that) you met Yesterday  is my boyfriend

Nel caso  di complemento indiretto con la presenza di preposizione  questa viene collocata di solito alla fine della frase ed il pronome viene omesso
That's the boy (who/whom) I talked about

Whose non può essere omesso

ATTENZIONE
a non confondere i pronomi relativi con la congiunzione that o con le question words who which whose

Gli avverbi relativi  where  when  why e how vengono di solito usati al posto di which


luogo Where al posto di  at - in  - on - to which

This is the restaurant where i usually dinner

tempo when al posto di  in - on - during which

It's midnight This is  the time when the ghost appear

causa why / the reason why (the reason for which)

I told you why I was there

modo  How ( the way in which)

This is how we managed to catch the train

frasi relative non determinative


                                                         persone                           animali o cose

soggetto                                               who                                  which

complemento diretto o indiretto        who                                    which

possesso                                            whose                                   whose


nelle frasi relative non determinative il pronome va sempre espresso anche quando  è oggetto
who  e which  non possono essere sostituiti da that

Pronomi relativi non determinativi  soggetto  who o which

Bob who wrote  a novel is a teacher

paris which has over 8 milions inhabitants is the capital of France

Pronomi relativi complemento diretto who whom e which

My doctor  who (who) I last saw before Christmas is working  abroad

last summer we stayed in my aunt's house  which is near the lake

Pronomi relativi complemento indiretto

John about whom  I spoke is leaving in Paris

John who I spoke about is leaving in Paris

il pronome relativo di possesso whose

Mary's cat whose tail was broken is fallen again from the roof

inglese grammatica - i significati del verbo get

inglese grammatica - i significati del verbo get

Molti sono i significati del verbo to get  uno dei più usati della lingua inglese

To get può voler dire

1. ottenere, ricevere es : He got a prize  - She got a letter  - He didn't get any answer
2. persuadere           es : He got her to come
3. arrivare andare    es  We got to the station late - I got here by bus
4. si può usare nella forma passiva  es : He got killed
5. to get può essere seguito da aggettivo o participio passato in questo caso ha il significato di divenire  e spesso corrisponde a un verbo italiano che ha forma riflessiva es :                                 to get cold   diventare freddo

                                                 to get married   sposarsi
                     
                                                 to get dirty      sporcarsi
                   
                                                 to get hungry diventare affamati

                                                 to get thirsty  diventare assetati

                                                 to get angry    arrabbiarsi

                                                to get dark           diventare buio
                                      
                                                 to get tired           stancarsi

                                                to get wet             bagnarsi


seguito da una preposizione spesso significa riuscire a

he got over the wall        riuscì a passare al di là del muro

he got through  the crowd   riuscì a passare tra la folla


ecco alcuni phrasal verbs

to get up        alzarsi

to get on          salire (sull'autobus)

to get into        entrare (in auto)

to get down       scendere

to get off            scendere (dall'autobus)

to get out of       scendere (dall'auto)

letteratura inglese - preromantic period

letteratura inglese - preromantic period

Historical background and literary Features of the period

poetry

Thomas Gray (1716-1771) - Roberti Burns (1759 - 1796 ) - William Blake (1757 - 1827) - William Cowper ( 1731 - 1800) - Edward Young ( 1683 -1765) - Williams Collins (1721 - 1759) - James Thomson (1700- 1748)  - James  Macpherson (1736 - 1796) - Thomas  Chatterton ( 1752 - 1770)

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

the Development of Novel Writing

Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) - Henry  Fielding (1707-1754)  - Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) - Tobias Smollet (1721-1771)
Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774) - Fanny Burney (1752-1840)

The Gothic Novel

Horace Walpole (1717-1797) and Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823)

Prose

James Boswell (1740- 1795)  - Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) - Edmund Burke (1729-1797) - William Godwin (1756-1836)

Drama

Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816)

American Literature of the Period 

Italian Literature of the Period

inglese - esercizi sul condizionale tipo 1

inglese - esercizi sul condizionale tipo 1

mettere i verbi nelle parentesi  nel tempo corretto

1. If i see him I  (give) .....................him a lift.
2. The table will collapse if you (stand)................... on it.
3. If you eat all that you (be)........................ ill.
4. If I find your passport I (telephone) ......................you at once.
5. The police  (arrest) ..................... him if they catch him.
6. If you read in bad light you (ruin) ........................ your eyes.
7. Someone  (steal) ...................... your car if you leave it unlocked.
8. What will happen if my parachute (not open)......................
9. If you mow the grass I (give) ..........................you 50 p.
10. I (led).................... you my pearls if you promise to take care of them.
11. If you (not go).................... away  I'll send for the police.
12. I (be)......................very angry  if your dog bites me again.
13. If he (be).................late  we'll go without him.
14. She will be absolutely furious if she (hear)..............about this
15. If you put on the kettle I (make).................the tea.
16. If you give my dog a bone he(bury) .......................it at once.
17. If we leave the car here it (not be ) ................. in anybody's way.
18. He'lll be late for the train if he (not start) ....................at once
19. If you come  late they (not let) you in.
20. If you tell any more lies I (be) ..........................very angry indeed.
21. Unless you work very hard you( not be)  successful.
22. If I lend you 10 p when you (repay).........................me.
23. We'll have to move upstairs if the river (rise) .....................any highet.
24. If he (work) ....................hard today can he have a Holiday Tomorrow ?
25. Ice (turn)........................ towater if you heat it.
26. If the house (catch)............... fire we can get out by the fire escape.
27. If you (not like) ...................... this one  I'll bring you another.
28. Unless you are more careful you (have) .............................an accident.
29. Tell him to ring me up if you (see) ................... him.
30. If I tell you a secret you (promise).........................not to tell it to anyone else?
31. If you  not believe .........................what  I say  ask you mother.
32. you (buy) ....................... the house  if you like it ?
33. If you will kindly sit down I (make).................... enquiries for you.
34. Unless I have a quiet room  I ( not be able) ..................to do any work.
35. Uless you pay him regularly he (not work)............................for you at all.
36. Should you require anything else please (ring).................the bell for the attendant.

soluzioni

1. shall give
2. stand
3. will be
4. shall telephone
5. will arrest
6. will ruin
7. will steal
8. doesn't open
9. shall give
10. shall lend
11. don't go
12. shall be
13. is
14. hears
15. shall make
16. will bury
17. won't be
18. doesn't  start
19. won't  let
20. shall be
21. won't be
22. don't like
23. rises
24. works
25. turns /will turns
26. catches
27. don't like
28. will have
29. see
30. will you promise
31. don't believe
32. will you buy
33. shall make
34. shan't be able
35. won't work
36. ring